Tobacco use is the leading cause of preventable death in the United States.¹ An estimated 437,000 deaths (approximately 1 in 5 of all deaths) occur annually in current or former smokers that are attributable to tobacco use in adults.¹ It is estimated that every day about 2,000 youth younger than age 18 years smoke their first cigarette,[[2 ]]and that about 5.6 million adolescents alive today will die prematurely from a smoking-related illness.^1,3 Although conventional cigarette use has gradually declined among children in the United States since the late 1990s,⁴ tobacco use via electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS), such as e-cigarettes, is quickly rising and is now more common among youth than cigarette smoking. ENDS entered the U.S. market in the mid-2000s⁵ and its use in youth has been tracked in the National Youth Tobacco Survey since 2011.¹ From 2011 to 2018, current e-cigarette use increased from 1.5% to 20.8% among high school students⁶ (220,000 to 3.05 million students); in 2018, 8.1% of high school students (1.18 million students) used conventional cigarettes.⁷ ENDS products frequently contain nicotine, which is addictive, raising concerns about ENDS use and nicotine addiction in children.⁵ Evidence suggests an association between ENDS use in nonsmoking adolescents and subsequent cigarette smoking in young adults. Ever use of e-cigarettes is associated with increased risk of ever use of combustible tobacco products.⁸ In addition, as the degree of ENDS use increases, frequency and intensity of smoking cigarettes also increases.⁸ Exposure to nicotine during adolescence may harm the developing brain, which may have long-term effects on brain function and cognition, attention, and mood.^1,5,9,10 For this recommendation, tobacco use includes smoking conventional cigarettes and use of ENDS or “vaping.” See the “Definitions” section for more information on tobacco products and terminology used in this recommendation.

Prevention

The USPSTF concludes with moderate certainty that primary care–feasible behavioral interventions, including education or brief counseling, to prevent tobacco use in school-aged children and adolescents have a moderate net benefit. The USPSTF found adequate evidence that behavioral counseling interventions, such as face-to-face or telephone interaction with a health care provider, print materials, and computer applications, can have a moderate effect in preventing initiation of tobacco use in school-aged children and adolescents. The USPSTF sought but found no evidence on the harms of behavioral counseling interventions for the prevention or cessation of tobacco use; however, the USPSTF bounds the magnitude of potential harms of behavioral counseling interventions as no greater than small based on the absence of reported harms in the literature and the noninvasive nature of the interventions (Table 1).

Cessation

The USPSTF concludes that there is insufficient evidence to determine the balance of benefits and harms of primary care interventions for tobacco cessation among school-aged children and adolescents who already smoke, due to a lack of adequately powered studies on behavioral counseling interventions and a lack of studies on medications. The USPSTF found inadequate evidence on the benefit of behavioral counseling interventions for tobacco cessation in school-aged children and adolescents. Sample sizes of studies of behavioral counseling interventions for cessation were small, making it unclear whether the observed lack of effect of interventions was the result of intervention failure or lack of statistical power. Although the USPSTF found no evidence on the harms of behavioral counseling interventions, it bounds the magnitude of potential harms of behavioral counseling interventions as no greater than small based on the absence of reported harms in the literature and the noninvasive nature of the interventions. The USPSTF found inadequate evidence on the benefits and harms of medications for tobacco cessation in children and adolescents primarily because of an inadequate number of studies that have evaluated tobacco cessation medications in this population. Potential harms depend on the specific medication (Table 1).

Patient Population Under Consideration

This recommendation applies to school-aged children and adolescents age 18 years and younger. The USPSTF has issued a separate recommendation statement on interventions for tobacco use cessation in adults older than age 18 years, including pregnant persons.¹¹

Definitions

“Tobacco use” refers to use of any tobacco product. As defined by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), tobacco products include cigarettes, cigars, dissolvables, hookah tobacco, nicotine gels, pipe tobacco, roll-your-own tobacco, smokeless tobacco products (including dip, snuff, snus, and chewing tobacco), vapes, electronic cigarettes, hookah pens, and other ENDS. “Smoking” generally refers to the inhaling and exhaling of smoke produced by combustible tobacco products such as cigarettes, cigars, and pipes. “Vaping” refers to the inhaling and exhaling of aerosols produced by ENDS.¹² Vape products usually contain nicotine, which is the addictive ingredient in tobacco. Substances other than tobacco can also be used to smoke or vape. ENDS includes e-cigarettes.

Assessment of Risk

All youth are considered at risk of initiating tobacco use. Interventions to prevent the initiation of tobacco use should be provided to all youth who have not started using tobacco products yet, regardless of the presence or absence of other risk factors. The following risk factors may increase the risk of tobacco use in youth: being male, white race, not college-bound, from a rural area, having parents with lower levels of education, parental smoking, having childhood friends who smoke, being an older adolescent, experiencing highly stressful events, and perceiving tobacco use as low risk.^13,14

Interventions to Prevent Tobacco Use and Implementation Considerations

Various behavioral counseling intervention types are effective in preventing tobacco initiation in children, including face-to-face counseling, telephone counseling, and computer-based and print-based interventions.¹⁵

Individual interventions target specific audiences (the child/adolescent, the parent, or both) and a variety of age ranges. For example, in the reviewed studies,15 interventions for children ages 7 to 10 years tended to be print-based materials, whereas face-to-face counseling and telephone- and computer-based interventions typically targeted children older than age 10 years. Interventions targeting parents tended to be print- or telephone-based. The number of contacts made with intervention recipients also varied, ranging from one to eight contacts.¹⁵ The intensity of the interventions varied, with the content of the print materials ranging from stickers to informational newsletters or an activity book (for children) or activity guide (for parents). For telephone-based interventions, telephone counseling was usually provided in conjunction with another modality such as print materials or face-to-face counseling. Based on the evidence reviewed,¹⁵ no specific component of behavioral counseling interventions (such as intervention modality, target audience, duration of intervention, or intervention setting) appeared to make an intervention more or less effective. Thus, providers have a broad range of effective behavioral counseling interventions from which to choose. For additional information about components of behavioral counseling interventions and how to implement behavioral counseling interventions to prevent tobacco use, see Table 2 and the “Additional Tools and Resources” section.

Most of the evidence on behavioral counseling interventions to prevent tobacco use focused on prevention of cigarette smoking.¹⁵ Given the similar contextual and cultural issues currently surrounding the use of ENDS in youth and the inclusion of ENDS as a tobacco product by the FDA, the USPSTF concludes that the evidence on interventions to prevent cigarette smoking could be applied to prevention of ENDS use as well.

Additional Tools and Resources

Primary care clinicians may find the following resources useful in talking with children and adolescents about the harms of tobacco use.

• Center for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC’s) “Youth Tobacco Prevention”: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/basic_information/youth/index.htm
• CDC’s “Tips from Former Smokers®”: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/campaign/tips/resources/index.html
• FDA’s “Think E-Cigs Can’t Harm Teen’s Health?”: https://www.fda.gov/tobacco-products/ctp-newsroom/think-e-cigs-cant-harm-teens-health
• National Cancer Institute’s “Become a Smokefree Teen”: https://teen.smokefree.gov
• National Cancer Institute’s: 1-800-QUIT-NOW
• 2016 Surgeon General’s Report: “E-Cigarette Use Among Youth and Young Adults”: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/e-cigarettes/index.htm
• 2012 Surgeon General’s Report: “Preventing Tobacco Use Among Youth and Young Adults”: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/2012/index.htm
• CDC’s “Fact Sheet on Youth and Tobacco Use”: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/youth_data/tobacco_use/index.htm

Other Related USPSTF Recommendations

The USPSTF has made recommendation on behavioral and pharmacotherapy interventions for tobacco smoking cessation in adults, including pregnant women,¹¹ and primary care behavioral interventions to reduce illicit drug and nonmedical pharmaceutical use in children and adolescents.¹⁶

Suggestions for Practice Regarding the I Statement on Cessation

Potential Preventable Burden

Nearly 90% of adult daily smokers smoked their first cigarette by the age of 18 years.¹ In 2018, 1.18 million high school students reported current use of conventional cigarettes⁷ and 3.05 million high school students reported current e-cigarette use.⁶ Forty-one percent of high school students who used any tobacco product in the past 12 months try to quit;¹⁷ however, most fail, and 75% will go on to smoke into adulthood. Immediate adverse health effects in child and adolescent smokers include increased negative respiratory effects such as impaired lung growth, early onset of lung function decline, respiratory and asthma-related symptoms (e.g., coughing and wheezing), and early abdominal aortic atherosclerosis.^1,18 Concerns regarding use of ENDS in adolescence includes its use as a bridge to conventional cigarette smoking, inhalation of carcinogens, nicotine dependence and toxicity, and harm to the developing brain.⁵

Although the evidence on behavioral counseling interventions to prevent tobacco use in children and adolescents is robust, fewer studies with smaller sample sizes are available that evaluate the effect of behavioral counseling interventions or pharmacotherapy on tobacco cessation.¹⁵ The pooled effect of the trials that evaluated behavioral counseling interventions for tobacco cessation in primary care settings did not find a significant reduction in smokers after the intervention.¹⁵ However, the study interventions were heterogeneous and most of the studies had fewer than 50 participants per study arm, making it difficult to determine whether interventions were unsuccessful at helping children and adolescents to stop using tobacco, or whether they were underpowered to detect a difference in tobacco cessation.

No medications are currently approved by the FDA for tobacco cessation in children and adolescents. The label for varenicline now states that it is not indicated in children age 16 years and younger because its efficacy in this population has not been demonstrated.¹⁹ Few trials have been published on medication use for tobacco cessation in children and adolescents (one trial on nicotine replacement therapy [NRT] and two trials on bupropion sustained-release [SR]). Trials were relatively small and all included behavioral counseling in addition to pharmacotherapy. None found a significant difference in quit rates postintervention.¹⁵

Potential Harms

The USPSTF found no evidence on harms from behavioral counseling interventions for tobacco cessation;¹⁵ however, these harms are likely small to none based on the absence of reported harms in the evidence, the noninvasive nature of the interventions, and the low likelihood of serious harms. The USPSTF found the evidence on harms from medications for tobacco cessation in children and adolescents to be inadequate. None of the published trials reported any serious harms; however, study sizes were relatively small.¹⁵ The single trial of NRT found a greater number of headaches, cough, abnormal dreams, muscle pain, and patch-related adverse events with NRT.²⁰ Bupropion carries a boxed warning for increased risk of suicidality in children, adolescents, and young adults, with other concerns for increased risk of seizure, hypertension, mania, visual problems, and unusual thoughts and behaviors.²¹ Varenicline is not indicated in children age 16 years and younger; therefore, no warnings specific to this age group are included in its label.¹⁹ For older populations, labeling includes warnings and precautions for neuropsychiatric adverse events, including suicidality, seizures, interaction with alcohol, cardiovascular events, sleepwalking, angioedema, serious skin reactions, and nausea.¹⁹

Current Practice

Approximately one third to one half of children and adolescents who have visited a clinician in the past year were asked about their tobacco use.^22,23 Of those who reported tobacco use in the past 30 days, approximately one quarter were advised to quit.^22,23

When finalized, this recommendation will replace the 2013 USPSTF recommendation on primary care interventions to prevent tobacco use in children and adolescents.²⁴ It is consistent with the 2013 recommendation, which similarly issued a “B” recommendation for primary care clinicians to provide interventions to prevent initiation of tobacco use among children and adolescents. New to the current recommendation is the inclusion of ENDS as a tobacco product. Also new to the current recommendation is the “I” statement on insufficient evidence on interventions for cessation of tobacco use among this population. The USPSTF is calling for more research to identify interventions (behavioral counseling or pharmacotherapy) to help children and adolescents who use tobacco to quit.

Scope of Review

The USPSTF commissioned a systematic review¹⁵ to evaluate the benefits and harms of primary care interventions for tobacco use prevention and cessation in children and adolescents. The current systematic review newly included ENDS as a tobacco product.

Benefits of Primary Care Interventions

Nearly all studies evaluated the effect of interventions on smoking prevention and cessation. As mentioned previously, the USPSTF determined that this evidence could be applied to other forms of tobacco use, including ENDS use.

Prevention

Fourteen trials (n=25,049) reported on the effects of behavioral counseling interventions to prevent the initiation of smoking.¹⁵ Nine of these trials enrolled only children who were nonsmokers at baseline while five trials enrolled both smokers and nonsmokers but reported results by baseline smoking status. The weighted mean age of participants was 12.8 years, although eligible ages ranged from 7 to 19 years across studies.¹⁵ Most studies used interventions that targeted the child/adolescent, although some targeted both children and parents/caregivers and a few trials targeted only the parents/caregivers. Intervention content included health education, readiness to act/change, and parenting skills (communication and positive parenting). Delivery settings of interventions varied and included primary care clinics, dental clinics, schools (after hours), and the child’s home. Various types of interventions were used, including print materials, face-to-face counseling, telephone support, and computer-based interventions. About half of the studies used only a single intervention type and half used combinations of various interventions (e.g., telephone counseling plus print materials or face-to-face counseling plus a computer-based intervention). Most studies reported that fewer youth initiated smoking when they received a behavioral counseling intervention (followup was most commonly at 12 months but ranged from 7 to 36 months).¹⁵ This finding was not always statistically significant for individual studies; however, this reduction was statistically significant when results from trials were pooled: 7.4% vs. 9.2% of participants initiated smoking in the intervention vs. control group (relative risk, 0.82 [95% CI, 0.73 to 0.92]; 13 studies; n=21,700).¹⁵ No effect modification was found by intervention type, setting, or target population (child vs. parent).¹⁵

Cessation

Nine trials (n=2,516) reported on the effects of behavioral counseling interventions on smoking cessation in youth.¹⁵ Four trials enrolled only smokers while five trials enrolled both smokers and nonsmokers but reported results by baseline smoking status.¹⁵ The weighted mean average age of participants in cessation trials was much older than in the prevention trials (16.6 years [range, 12 to 19 years]).¹⁵ Nearly all interventions targeted the child/adolescent and very few targeted parents/caregivers. Intervention content most commonly focused on assessing and facilitating the youth’s readiness to change; a few interventions included health education. The delivery setting of interventions was most commonly a primary care or dental clinic; a few studies delivered interventions at home. Nearly all interventions used combinations of intervention types, most commonly face-to face counseling; telephone- and computer-based interventions and print materials (one intervention) were used less commonly. Two trials reported significant increases in smoking cessation rates in youth receiving interventions.^25,26 One trial used a combination of motivational interviewing supplemented with handouts, a computer program, and telephone calls;²⁵ the other trial used a combination of one face-to-face session supplemented with one telephone call.²⁶ Meta-analysis of all nine trials reported a risk reduction of percent smokers postintervention that was not statistically significant (relative risk, 0.97 [95% CI, 0.93 to 1.01]); 80.6% of participants were still smoking at the end of the study (range, 6 to 18 months) in the intervention group vs. 84.1% in the control group.¹⁵ However, given the small study sizes, it was unclear whether this finding was a result of the studies being underpowered to detect a change in smoking behavior. Additional analyses were performed to evaluate if various factors, such as intervention type, setting, target population (child vs. parent) or study duration may modify whether an intervention was effective. No factors were identified that modified the effect of interventions.¹⁵

Three trials (n=788) reported on the effect of medications on smoking cessation in youth.¹⁵ Two trials evaluated bupropion SR^27,28 and one trial evaluated NRT.²⁹ All trials were relatively small (211 to 312 participants per trial) and all trials also included behavioral counseling interventions in addition to medications. One of the bupropion SR trials also included NRT for all participants.²⁷ None of the trials reported that medications improved cessation rates; smoking rates remained high in both treatment and control groups in all trials. In the bupropion SR trials, 87.5% to 93.8% of participants were still smoking at the 6-month followup;^27,28 95.6% of the NRT group and 93.4% of the control group were still smoking at 12 months in the NRT trial.²⁹ The USPSTF identified one unpublished trial of varenicline for tobacco cessation in adolescents.³⁰ Although study results have not been published in a peer-reviewed journal (and therefore are not included in the USPSTF’s systematic evidence review), information is available from trial registries and other documents indicating that the study did not meet its primary endpoint of increased 4-week continuous abstinence at 12 weeks for varenicline compared with placebo.^30,31

Harms of Primary Care Interventions

The USPSTF evaluated harms of behavioral counseling interventions from the 18 trials that reported on benefits of interventions on smoking prevention and smoking cessation, as well as four additional trials that reported on the effect of behavioral counseling interventions on smoking prevalence irrespective of baseline smoking status.¹⁵ None of the 22 trials reported adverse events or harms associated with behavioral counseling interventions.¹⁵ Some trials reported higher smoking rates at followup in intervention groups compared with control groups, but this finding was not statistically significant in any of the trials.

The USPSTF evaluated harms of medications for smoking cessation from four trials (n=914);¹⁵ the three trials described above (two on bupropion and one on NRT) as well as a fourth trial on bupropion SR that did not meet inclusion criteria for evidence on benefits because its followup was less than 6 months.³² No difference in serious or severe adverse events was reported with bupropion vs. control participants, although two trials reported that 4% of participants withdrew due to adverse events with bupropion.¹⁵ Some studies reported more headaches, cough, dream disturbance, insomnia, and irritability with bupropion than controls.¹⁵ Although no cases were reported in the studies included in the current review, bupropion carries a boxed warning for increased risk of suicidality in children, adolescents, and young adults, and the insert also includes other concerns for increased risk of seizure, hypertension, mania, visual problems, and unusual thoughts and behaviors.²¹ In the single trial on NRT, NRT was associated with more headaches, cough, abnormal dreams, muscle pain, and patch-related adverse events than placebo.²⁰

More studies are needed to identify effective interventions to help children and adolescents who use tobacco products to quit.

• Larger, adequately powered studies and studies of new behavioral counseling interventions for cessation are needed.
  • These studies should report tobacco cessation outcomes at 6 months or later and should also provide information on components of the behavioral counseling intervention provided in the study (such as intensity of delivery, frequency of contacts, content and type of counseling or materials provided, delivery setting of studies, and training of persons delivering the intervention).
• More studies are needed that evaluate the benefits and harms of medications to help youth with tobacco cessation.
• More research is needed on interventions tailored specifically to prevent initiation of use and promote cessation of ENDS use in youth.

The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that pediatricians provide brief counseling to all children and adolescents to prevent tobacco use initiation, and that all teenagers be screened for tobacco and nicotine use. For adolescents who want to stop using tobacco, AAP recommends that tobacco dependence treatment, referral, or both be offered, and that tobacco dependence pharmacotherapy can be considered for adolescents who are moderately to severely dependent on tobacco who want to stop smoking. ENDS are not recommended as a treatment for tobacco dependence.³³ The AAP also recommends that pediatricians screen children and adolescents, parents, and caregivers for ENDS use, and provide prevention counseling for children and adolescents. Further, it recommends that parents, caregivers, and adolescents who use ENDS should be offered or referred to tobacco cessation counseling and FDA-approved tobacco dependence pharmacotherapy appropriate to their level of addiction and readiness to change and, again, that ENDS is not recommended as a treatment for tobacco dependence.³⁴ In 2016, the U.S. Surgeon General issued a report on e-cigarette use and recommended that health care professionals should warn youth of the health risks of e-cigarettes and other nicotine-containing products.5 The American Academy of Family Physicians supports the 2013 USPSTF recommendation.³⁵

1. Office of the Surgeon General. Health consequences of smoking, Surgeon General fact sheet. https://www.hhs.gov/surgeongeneral/reports-and-publications/tobacco/consequences-smoking-factsheet/index.html. Accessed June 5, 2019.
2. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Reports and Detailed Tables From the 2017 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH). https://www.samhsa.gov/data/nsduh/reports-detailed-tables-2017-NSDUH. Accessed June 5, 2019.
3. Singh T, Arrazola RA, Corey CG, et al. Tobacco use among middle and high school students--United States, 2011-2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65(14):361-367.
4. National Center for HIV/AIDS, Vital Hepatitis, STD, and TB. Trends in the prevalence of tobacco use. National YRBS: 1991–2017. https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/pdf/trends/2017_tobacco_trend_yrbs.pdf. Accessed June 5, 2019.
5. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. E-Cigarette Use Among Youth and Young Adults: A Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, MD: Office of the Surgeon General; 2016.
6. Cullen KA, Ambrose AB, Gentzke AS, Apelberg BJ, Jamal A, King BA. Notes from the field: use of electronic cigarettes and any tobacco product among middle and high school students--United States, 2011-2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018;67(45):1276-1277.
7. Gentzke AS, Creamer M, Cullen KA, et al. Vital Signs: Tobacco Product Use Among Middle and High School Students--United States, 2011-2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68(6):157-164.
8. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Board on Population Health and Public Health Practice; Committee on the Review of the Health Effects of Electronic Nicotine Delivery Systems. Public Health Consequences of E-Cigarettes. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2018.
9. Goriounova NA, Mansvelder HD. Short- and long-term consequences of nicotine exposure during adolescence for prefrontal cortex neuronal network function. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2012;2(12):a012120.
10. Musso F, Bettermann F, Vucurevic G, Stoeter P, Konrad A, Winterer G. Smoking impacts on prefrontal attentional network function in young adult brains. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2007;191(1):159-169.
11. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Behavioral and pharmacotherapy interventions for tobacco smoking cessation in adults, including pregnant women: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2015;163(8):622-634.
12. Center on Addiction. Recreational vaping 101: what is vaping? https://www.centeronaddiction.org/e-cigarettes/recreational-vaping/what-vaping. Accessed June 5, 2019.
13. Johnston LD, Miech RA, O'Malley PM, Bachman JG, Schulenberg JE, Patrick ME. Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug Use 1975-2018. 2018 Overview: Key Findings on Adolescent Drug Use. Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan; 2019.
14. Office of Adolescent Health. Adolescents and tobacco: risk and protective factors. https://www.hhs.gov/ash/oah/adolescent-development/substance-use/drugs/tobacco/risk-and-protective-factors/index.html. Accessed June 5, 2019.
15. Selph S, Patnode C, Bailey S, et al. Primary Care Relevant Interventions for Tobacco and Nicotine Use Prevention and Cessation in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force.Evidence Synthesis No. 185.AHRQ Publication No. 19-05254-EF-1. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2019.
16. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Primary care behavioral interventions to reduce illicit drug and nonmedical pharmaceutical use in children and adolescents: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recomemndation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2014;160(9):634-639.
17. Kann L, McManus T, Harris WA, et al. Youth risk behavior surveillance - United States, 2017. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2018;67(8):1-114.
18. National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health. Preventing Tobacco Use Among Youth and Young Adults: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2012.
19. CHANTIX® (vareniclince tartrate). Prescribing information. https://www.pfizermedicalinformation.com/en-us/chantix. Accessed June 5, 2019.
20. Scherphof CS, van den Eijnden RJ, Engels RC, Vollebergh WA. Short-term efficacy of nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation in adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2014(46):120-127.
21. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. WELLBUTRIN® (bupropion hydrochloride). Prescribing information. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2017/018644s053lbl.pdf. Accessed June 5, 2019.
22. Collins L, Smiley SL, Moore RA, Graham AL, Villanti AC. Physician tobacco screening and advice to quit among U.S. adolescents - National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2013. Tob Induc Dis. 2017;15:2.
23. Dai H, Clements M. Trends in healthcare provider advice on youth tobacco use, 2011-2015. Am J Prev Med. 2018;55(2):222-230.
24. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Primary care interventions to prevent tobacco use in children and adolescents: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Pediatrics. 2013;132(3):560-565.
25. Hollis JF, Polen MR, Whitlock EP, et al. Teen reach: outcomes from a randomized, controlled trial of a tobacco reduction program for teens seen in primary medical care. Pediatrics. 2005;115(4):981-989.
26. Colby SM, Monti PM, O'Leary Tevyaw T, et al. Brief motivational intervention for adolescent smokers in medical settings. Addict Behav. 2005;30(5):865-874.
27. Killen JD, Robinson TN, Ammerman S, et al. Randomized clinical trial of the efficacy of bupropion combined with nicotine patch in the treatment of adolescent smokers. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2004;72(4):729-735.
28. Muramoto ML, Leischow SJ, Sherrill D, Matthews E, Strayer LJ. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 2 dosages of sustained-release bupropion for adolescent smoking cessation. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2007;161(11):1068-1074.
29. Scherphof CS, van den Eijnden RJ, Engels RC, Vollebergh WA. Long-term efficacy of nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation in adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014;140:217-220.
30. Pfizer. Smoking cessation study in healthy adolescent smokers. In: ClinicalTrials.gov. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01312909. NLM Identifier: NCT01312909.
31. Pfizer reports top-line results from a study of Chantix®/Champix® (Varenicline) in adolescent smokers. March 23, 2018. https://www.pfizer.com/news/press-release/press-release-detail/pfizer_reports_top_line_results_from_a_study_of_chantix_champix_varenicline_in_adolescent_smokers. Accessed June 5, 2019.
32. Gray KM, Carpenter MJ, Baker NL, et al. Bupropion SR and contingency management for adolescent smoking cessation. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2011;40(1):77-86.
33. Farber HJ, Walley SC, Groner JA, Nelson KE; Section on Tobacco Control. Clinical practice policy to protect children from tobacco, nicotine, and tobacco smoke. Pediatrics. 2015;136(5):1008-1017.
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35. American Academy of Family Physicians. Clinical Preventive Service Recommendation: Tobacco Use in Children and Adolescents. https://www.aafp.org/patient-care/clinical-recommendations/all/tobacco-use-children.html. Accessed June 5, 2019.
36. Hovell MF, Slymen DJ, Jones JA, et al. An adolescent tobacco-use prevention trial in orthodontic offices. Am J Public Health. 1996;86(12):1760-1766.
37. Pbert L, Flint AJ, Fletcher KE, Young MH, Druker S, DiFranza JR. Effect of a pediatric practice-based smoking prevention and cessation intervention for adolescents: a randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics. 2008;121(4):e738-e747.
38. Bauman KE, Foshee VA, Ennett ST, et al. The influence of a family program on adolescent tobacco and alcohol use. Am J Public Health. 2001;91(4):604-610.
39. Ausems M, Mesters I, van Breukelen G, De Vries H. Short-term effects of a randomized computer-based out-of-school smoking prevention trial aimed at elementary schoolchildren. Prev Med. 2002;34(6):581-589.
40. Curry SJ, Hollis J, Bush T, et al. A randomized trial of a family-based smoking prevention intervention in managed care. Prev Med. 2003;37(6 Pt 1):617-626.
41. Fidler W, Lambert TW. A prescription for health: a primary care based intervention to maintain the non-smoking status of young people. Tob Control. 2001;10(1):23-26.
42. Hiemstra M, Ringlever L, Otten R, van Schayck OC, Jackson C, Engels RC. Long-term effects of a home-based smoking prevention program on smoking initiation: a cluster randomized controlled trial. Prev Med. 2014;60:65-70.
43. Jackson C, Dickinson D. Enabling parents who smoke to prevent their children from initiating smoking: results from a 3-year intervention evaluation. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2006;160(1):56-62.
44. Schuck K, Otten R, Kleinjan M, Bricker JB, Engels RC. Promoting smoking cessation among parents: effects on smoking-related cognitions and smoking initiation in children. Addict Behav. 2015;40:66-72.
45. Lando HA, Hennrikus D, Boyle R, Lazovich D, Stafne E, Rindal B. Promoting tobacco abstinence among older adolescents in dental clinics. J Smok Cessat. 2007;2(1):23-30.
46. Redding CA, Prochaska JO, Armstrong K, et al. Randomized trial outcomes of a TTM-tailored condom use and smoking intervention in urban adolescent females. Health Educ Res. 2015;30(1):162-178.
47. Haggerty KP, Skinner ML, MacKenzie EP, Catalano RF. A randomized trial of Parents Who Care: effects on key outcomes at 24-month follow-up. Prev Sci. 2007;8(4):249-260.
48. Cremers HP, Mercken L, Candel M, de Vries H, Oenema A. A Web-based, computer-tailored smoking prevention program to prevent children from starting to smoke after transferring to secondary school: randomized controlled trial. J Med Internet Res. 2015;17(3):e59.
49. Hoffmann TC, Glasziou PP, Boutron I, et al. Better reporting of interventions: template for intervention description and replication (TIDieR) checklist and guide. BMJ. 2014;348:g1687.

* Adapted from Table 7 in reference¹⁴ and a modified Template for Intervention Description and Replication (TIDieR) checklist.^49
† The USPSTF does not endorse any specific intervention. Materials listed here represent examples of materials that were used in reviewed studies, and are publically available. Other studies may reference practice materials, but either their web sites are no longer active, they use outdated modes of communication (e.g., VHS tape), or the material is in a foreign language.